European Union

 

In order to end the conflicts that culminated in World War II and ensure lasting peace, European countries began a process of building closer cooperation among themselves. In 1951, six European countries (Germany, France, Italy, the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg) signed the Treaty of Paris to establish the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), the first European community. The ECSC was intended to create a common market for the free movement of coal and steel and thus contribute to economic expansion, employment, and a higher standard of living.

 

Following the success of the ECSC, the 6 countries extended cooperation to other economic sectors. Accordingly, on January 1, 1958, the Treaty of Rome came into force, which established the European Atomic Energy Community (Euratom)- designed to facilitate cooperation in the development, research and use of atomic energy- and the European Economic Community (EEC). The EEC created a European common market that included the elimination of most barriers to the movement of people, goods, services, and capital, the prohibition of obstacles to market competition, a common agricultural policy (CAP), and a common external trade policy. In 1967, the Merger Treaty established the European Communities as a result of the merger of the EEC, Euratom, and the ECSC.

 

In the 1970s, Denmark, Ireland, and the United Kingdom joined the common project. In the 1980s, the European Economic Community (EEC) opened its doors to the emerging democracies of Southern Europe (Greece in 1981 and Spain and Portugal in 1986). Portugal applied to join the European Communities in 1977, and signed the Accession Treaty on June 12, 1985 in Lisbon at the Monastery of Jerónimos.

 

The European Union (EU) was established by the Maastricht Treaty (formally called the Treaty on European Union), which came into force on November 1, 1993 after being ratified by all member states. The treaty was established to strengthen European political and economic integration and consisted of three main pillars: the European Communities, a Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP), and the advancement of cooperation in the fields of justice and home affairs. With the entry into force of the Treaty, the EEC became the European Community (EC), the concept of European citizenship was introduced, the powers of the European Parliament were strengthened, and Economic and Monetary Union (EMU) was launched.

 

The Amsterdam Treaty, signed in 1997, enshrined a more democratic and social Europe and identified as EU objectives the promotion of employment and citizens' rights; improved living and working conditions and adequate social protection; added protections against sex discrimination, and transferred asylum, immigration, and civil judicial policy to community jurisdiction; granted the Council of Ministers the power to penalize members for serious violations of fundamental human rights; and gave Parliament veto power over a wide range of EC policies, as well as the power to reject the European Council's nominee for Commission president.

 

In 1995 Austria, Finland, and Sweden joined the EU.

 

The Treaty of Nice, signed in 2001, reformed the institutional system in an attempt to maintain the efficient functioning of the EU and prepare for the EU's largest enlargement in 2004, which included 10 countries, namely the Central and Eastern European countries (Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Slovakia and Slovenia), as well as Malta and Cyprus. In December 2007, Bulgaria and Romania joined the EU.

 

The last important step in the process of deepening the EU was the Treaty of Lisbon that was signed in 2007 and came into force in 2009. The main goals of this treaty were to make the EU more democratic, efficient and transparent, and thus ensure the conditions for it to respond to global challenges such as climate change, security and sustainable development. The Treaty of Lisbon simplified working methods and voting rules; created the position of President of the European Council; introduced the possibility for a member state to withdraw from the European Union; reduced the number of MEPs; created the position of High Representative of the European Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy; European Citizens' Initiative; EU's own legal personality; and the organization of EU powers into three types of competence (exclusive, shared and supporting). In line with the objectives, sweeping changes were made and the Treaty establishing the European Community was renamed the Treaty on the Functioning of the European Union. The name Union takes the place of Community.

 

In 2013, Croatia became a member state of the EU.

 

The EU is an economic and political organization that currently consists of 27 European countries and governs common economic, social and security policies. The United Kingdom, which had been a founding member of the EU, withdrew from the organization in 2020.

 

Council of the European Union

 

The Council of the European Union (the Council or the Council of Ministers) is the main decision-making body in the European Union. It meets at the ministers of the member states level and is therefore the representative institution of the member states. Its headquarters are in Brussels, but the Council meetings can also be held in Luxembourg. Council meetings are convened by the Presidency, which sets the agenda.

 

At the Energy Policy level, the Transport, Telecommunications and Energy Council Ministers is the Community decision-making body. Usually, there are two sessions per year, one per semester. the Presidency oversees the policy during this semester and could require the convening of an extraordinary session and an informal session may take place.  The technical negotiation takes place at the Energy Group level, which is the negotiating body par excellence for the energy policy, having an established schedule that foresees a weekly meeting.

 

Presidency of the Council of the European Union

 

The Presidency of the Council is held by the EU member states on a rotating basis for six-month period.

 

Member states holding the presidency work together closely in groups of three, called "trios". The trio sets long-term goals and prepares a common agenda that sets out the themes and major issues that will be addressed by the Council over an 18-month period. Based on this agenda, each of the three countries prepares its own more detailed half-yearly programme.

 

The European Parliament

 

The European Parliament is the legislative body of the EU, directly elected by the European citizens every five years, with the last elections taking place in May 2019.

 

It adopts legislation, together with the Council of the EU, based on proposals from the European Commission; it decides on international agreements, decides on enlargements, and examines the Commission's work programme and invites the Commission to propose legislation. It has supervisory powers, exercising democratic control over all EU institutions; it elects the President of the Commission and approves the Commission as a whole; it can vote a motion of censure, forcing the Commission to resign; it grants discharge, i.e. approving  how the EU budget is spent, examining citizens' petitions and opening inquiries; it discusses monetary policy with the European Central Bank and questioning the Commission and the Council; it conducts electoral observations.

 

It sets the EU budget together with the Council and approves the EU's multi-year financial framework, discusses monetary policy with the European Central Bank.

 

The number of members for each country is proportional to its population. This is by degressive proportionality: no country can have fewer than 6 or more than 96 members. Members are grouped by political affiliation, not by nationality.

 

The European Council

 

The European Council defines the general political path and priorities of the EU. The members of the European Council are the Heads of State or Government of the 27 EU member states, the European Council President and the European Commission President.

 

European Commission

 

The European Commission is the executive body of the European Union and operates independently. It defends the general interests of the EU, is responsible for proposing legislation for adoption by the Council of the EU and the European Parliament and for implementing EU laws, policies and budget.

 

The Commission's mission is to represent and defend the interests of the European Union as a whole and to develop new proposals for European legislation, presenting them to the European Parliament and the Council,  ensuring the daily management of the European Union: implementing policies, executing programs, and using funds. Currently, there is one Commissioner for each country in the European Union, i.e. 27.

 

The Commission also manages European policies, distributes EU funds, ensures that EU law is applied by all member states, represents the EU internationally, and negotiates international agreements on behalf of the European Union. 

 

The President of the Commission for 2019 to 2024 is Ursula von der Leyen, who leads a team of twenty-seven European Commissioners, one from each member state, and decides on the distribution of policy portfolios among the respective Commissioners (organizational chart).

 

The current Commission's term of office ends on October 31, 2024.

 

The President is responsible for defining the broad political guidelines of the Commission, which enable the Commissioners to outline strategic goals and prepare the annual work programme.

 

All Commissioners carries the same power within the decision-making process and are equally accountable for the decisions made. In general, decisions are taken by consensus, but votes may also be taken.

 

The draft legislative and non-legislative proposals are submitted to the Commissioners, which, once approved by the College of Commissioners, become official proposals and then submitted to the Council of the EU and the European Parliament for the following steps in the EU legislative process.

 

The European Commission assists in setting the overall EU strategy, proposes new EU laws and policies, monitors their implementation and manages the EU budget. It also plays an important role in supporting international development and providing humanitarian aid.

 

The Commission is organized into departments known as Directorates-General which develop policies in the specific areas. The main goals of the Commission's Directorate-General for Energy  are: 

 

• Define a strategy for secure, competitive and sustainable energy;
• Achieve the EU’s energy efficiency target set at 20% in 2030 and 32.5% in 2030;
• Achieve the EU’s renewable target of 20% in 2030 and 32% in 2030;
• Ensure energy access and secure energy supply;
• Ensure secure and affordable energy supplies from outside Europe;
• Promote innovation in clean and low carbon technologies;
• Ensure that all sectors contribute to the decarbonization of the economy, at a low cost to consumers;
• Develop a modern energy infrastructure that connects regional markets;
• Reinforce international cooperation with countries worldwide and international institutions;
• Ensure efficient and responsible use of fossil fuels;
• Ensure the safe use of nuclear energy.

 

2022 Commission Work Programme

 

The Commission adopted its 2022 Work Programme, which sets out specific actions to continue providing the ambitions that the Commission set out at the beginning of its mandate and further steer the European Union towards a sustainable recovery. It also registers the key legislative proposals that should have priority in the legislative process to ensure swift implementation.

 

The Commission's 2022 Work Programme represents the shift from a strategy for the implementation of the six policy priorities. The Commission aims accelerating the twin green and digital transitions and building a fairer, more resilient and cohesive society, in line with the UN’s Agenda 2030 and the Paris Agreement.

 

The European Commission's 6 priorities for 2019-2024:

 

• European Green Deal
• Europe fit for the digital age
• Economy that works for people
• A stronger Europe in the world
• Promoting our European way of life
• A new push for European democracy

 

The Commission's policy guidelines for the period 2019-2024 of July 16, 2019 can be found [here].

 

European Central Bank (ECB)

 

The European Central Bank manages the euro and implements economic and monetary policy. Its main aim is to keep prices stable, thereby supporting economic growth and job creation. It sets interest rates at which it lends to commercial banks in the eurozone, controlling money supply and inflation. Manages the eurozone's foreign exchange currency reserves and the buying and selling of currencies to balance exchange rates. Ensures proper supervision of financial institutions and markets by national authorities, and that payment systems running properly. Ensure the safety and soundness of the European banking system. Authorises the issuance of euro banknotes by eurozone countries. Monitors price trends and assesses risks to price stability.

 

Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU)

 

The Court of Justice of the European Union aims to ensure that European law is interpreted and applied the same in every EU country and to guarantee that the EU institutions and countries comply with European law; gives rulings on cases brought before it, including Interpretation of the law (preliminary rulings) - the national courts of EU countries must ensure that EU law is correctly applied. Enforcing the law (infringement proceedings) – this type of case is taken against a national government for failing to comply with EU law. It can be started by the European Commission or another EU country. If the country is found to be at fault, it must put things right at once, or risk a second case being brought, which may result in a fine. Cancelling EU legal acts (actions for annulment) – if an EU act is believed to violate EU treaties or fundamental rights, the Court can be asked to annul it – by an EU government, the Council of the EU, the European Commission or (in some cases) the European Parliament. Ensuring the EU acts (actions for failure to act) – the Parliament, Council and Commission must make certain decisions under certain circumstances. Sanctioning EU institutions (actions for damages).